CHAPTER II

IKLAN DI TENGAH

 THEORETICAL REVIEW

2.1 Definition of Teaching

To transfer information the teacher has to know definition of teaching. There are some experts who have defined what is teaching.

According to Tomlinson (2001:3) “Language teaching is used to refer anything done by materials developers or the teacher is to facilitate the learning of the language”. It means teaching is a facility in learning process of the language and teacher as facilitation.

According to Joyce and Weil (2007:79) “Teaching is a process by which teacher and students create a shared environment including sets of values and beliefs (Agreement about what is important) which in to color their view of reality”. Students come to school with different learning style, requiring different approaches to be followed to make for effective learning.

According to Wyse and Jones (2004:2) “During the 1970s and 1980s the teaching of language was the focus”. So, in giving knowledge, teacher must concentrate in the materials of the subject and stay focus. It means in those years of age, teaching language was the most important subject for the teacher to teach teaching is process of transferring and understanding from the teacher to the pupil their students. Teaching language was the main purpose of teaching and all students had to learn it.

The writer concludes that teaching is facilitation in learning process. Teaching is activity which is performed, directly or indirectly by human

Being. Consequently, everyone who writes about it is a potential teacher or pupil and situation to show what the teacher explain to the pupils, that s. Teaching is not only giving lesson to the students. But also how the teacher delivers the lesson to the student. Teaching can give the knowledge to the students and teaching can know the characteristic of the students.

2.2. Principles of Teaching Young Children

According to Joseph & Strain, (2002 : 4). “For emotional vocabulary teaching to be effective adults must first spend the time necessary to build positive relationships with children”. It means that is foundational context of a warm and responsive relationship with children, teachers can maximize their influence to enhance emotional vocabulary”.

According to Denham, (1986 : 4). “ classrooms that devote planned attention to help children acquire a rich and varied feeling vocabulary we may expect fewer challenging behaviors and more developmentally sophisticated and enjoyable peer social”.It means that to help the children become smart and enjoyable.

According to Mc Closkey (2002:67), “effective teaching of young learners promotes innate language acquisition mechanisms by providing children opportunities to use language as a tool for creating and sharing meanings and by scaffolding experiences to help children function  Effective teaching, therefore, involves authentic communication between learner and teacher and among learners, and is activity-based, providing purposeful ways for students to use language to meet    appropriate goals”. It means that using language goals from one age group for learners at earlier ages may not serve any benefit, but instead may cause learners to miss important opportunities. There are seven instructional principles of teaching young Teachers:

1. Offer learners enjoyable, active roles in the learning experience.

Young learners are meaning-seekers who learn best by doing and who prefer a safe, but still challenging learning environment. Direct instruction methodologies and content intended for older learners are being pushed down to classes of  younger learners based on the idea that introducing them sooner will make learning more effective. But young children learn differently and need different learning environments. Overuse of direct teaching of young learners in the full classroom group risks the fallacy that “input” will automatically lead to “intake” that if we teach something, it has been learned. But for young children, active involvement in the construction of concepts is essential. We must provide input in child appropriate ways and offer many opportunities for children to use language purposefully as language develops. For example, once we have modeled language and procedures for water experiments about things that float and things that sink, or which container holds more water, we can provide opportunities on the playground for children to experiment with water and use the language in discussions. By asking questions and making comments as children participate in their very purposeful play and learning tasks.

2. Help students develop and practice language through collaboration.

Children  are social learners. While ensuring that students have access to vocabulary and structures they need and rich exposure to many kinds of literature is a very effective way to model high quality, academic language and then supporting their language as needed, we provide opportunities for learners to communicate with us and with one another. During the water explorations, for example, one child could be encouraged to conduct the experiments while others give instructions and ask questions about what they see happening.

3.  Use multi-dimensional, thematically organized activities.

Provide thematically organized activities and incorporate multiple dimensions of learning and learning styles appropriate to younger learners .Thematic organization offers us opportunities to cycle and recycle related language and concepts so that we can support children as they develop the complex connections that lead to learning. We need to incorporate many kinds of child-development appropriate activities into children’s exploration of themes: we might move like waves on the sea, sing songs about sailing on the ocean, draw pictures of our experiments or our favorite water creatures, weigh and measure water, solve problems about sharing lemonade, read and reflect on a story about a mother duck temporarily losing one of her little ones, and, with children, write reports about what we are learning and thinking about.

4. Provide comprehensible input with scaffolding.

Provide rich yet comprehensible input with supportive scaffolding from teacher, context, and peers to help learners work at the ZPD or “the growing edge” providing tasks and concepts that children can accomplish or acquire with just a little instruction and support. When children can perform these tasks independently, the growing edge changes or expands, and teachers then support learners with slightly more difficult tasks and concepts. Since teachers must continually focus on providing input and requests for output that children will need to perform at the next level, they must use careful observation and classroom-based assessment to know their children’s capabilities well. Scaffolding activities for reading and writing might include reading a story aloud, providing graphic organizers to help children understand and discuss the language patterns and structure of a story, and shared writing with children from the graphic organizer. Integrate language with content.

Teaching language for age-appropriate academic content has several advantages: Students learning two languages in school in a bilingual setting curriculum can be integrated across languages, so that the children in L2 (second-language) classrooms encounter the same concepts that they do in L1 (first language) classrooms but with new labels, both reinforcing the content-area learning and facilitating the new language learning because it is based on what children already know. In a L2 setting, teaching language through content means that students’ academic learning is not delayed while they learn language. Rather, they have the opportunity to learn language in age-appropriate, stage appropriate activities that will prepare them for grade-level academic content.

5. Validate and integrate home language and culture.

Continued development of children’s home language will only support development of a new language. Another misunderstanding of how language develops that is common outside linguistic and language educational circles is that a first language can hinder or interfere with a second. Rather, students with good academic learning in their first language are clearly at an advantage when they begin to learn additional languages. When a child “breaks the code” or “joins the literacy club” and understands the basic concepts of reading in one language, this does not need to be re-learned in the target language. Rather, students now need to learn only new words, new sounds, and new written codes – no small task, but a much easier one than learning to read in a new language when a child doesn’t have literacy concepts. As language educators, we can help young learners use their knowledge and learning experiences of their home language to expand their learning in a second language. Acquiring a new language should clearly be an additive process and should never necessitate losing one’s mother tongue.

6. Provide clear goals and feedback on performance.

Children want to do right. They need to know when they’ve achieved a goal and when they still have more to learn. We must establish clear language and content goals for learners and provide learners with feedback on their progress toward those goals. We can also, in developmentally appropriate ways, encourage learners to begin to evaluate their own progress toward accomplishing goals to help them become independent, self motivated learners.

The teacher must devote as much individual attention as possible to teach children. An important process of learning is encouraging and commending the children for their efforts.

2.3. Definition of Question Tags

            According to Huddleston and Pullum (2002:934), “A tag question are formed with shall we?/ will we? (instead of will you?/ won’t you?), and negation can be formed either with do not/don’t or just with not without changing the semantic scope”. It means that Question tags positive the answer must be negative.

             According to Raymond (2002:104), “questions tags is mini questions which we put on the end of a sentence”. It means that In questions tags use the auxiliary verb, for the present ,past and future. Use do/does/did/was/were/have/has/had/shall.

According to Wren & Martin (2003:305), “question tags is a common practice in conversation to make a statement and ask for confirmation; for example:

Positive sentence	negative tag
it’s very hot,	isn’t it?
Ann will be here soon,	won’t she?
Tom should pass his exam,	shouldn’t he?
They Came by car,	didn’t they?

Negative sentence	Positive tag
Tom won’t be late,	Will he?
They don’t like us,	Do they?
That isn’t George over here	Is it?
You haven’t seen Ann today,	Have you?
You couldn’t do me a favour,	Could you?

The writer concludes that question tags is mini questions which   put on the end of a sentence and ask for confirmation. questions tags is not only giving question to the student. But also how the teacher delivers the question to the student. Actually, question Tags use for short question but easy to learn.

2.4       Definition of Games

According to Hadfield (1998:4) “A game is an activity with rules, a goal and element of fun”. It mean that games are a vital part of a teacher’s equipment, not only for language practice they provide, but also for the therapeutic effect they have. They can be used at any stage of a class to provide an amusing and challenging respite from other classroom activity and are especially useful at the end of along day to send students away feeling cheerful about their English class. Games can be the media to teach young learners for some reasons.

According to Wright, et al (1997:1), “games can be found to give practice in all the skills (reading, writing, listening, and speaking), and for many types of communications (e.g. encouraging, criticizing, agreeing, explaining)”. Games are used to make the children easier to understand and remember vocabularies in some topics. By using games, the children do not feel that they learn something through that activity. Through games the students become active learners. The teacher should have a creative way in giving the materials to the students, one of the ways is by doing some fun activities.

According to Linse (2001:5) explain that “The games for the most part are variations of favorite childhood games play purely for recreational purposes” It mean that games have many variations that make students interesting so the teacher can reach the purpose of teaching through creating a new game that relevant with the subject.

According to Shaptoshvili (2002 : 34 ) “ Games are important parts of a teacher’s repertoire. Although they are recreational activities bye nature whose main purpose is enjoyment. In the language learning process their purpose is to rein force what has already been thought”. It means that although the game is fun, but in the language learning it is more difficult because the problem is suitable with the language.

 The writer concludes that games for children is facilitation and practice on one way in learning process which playing something by doing some fun activities. Games are using to make the children easier to understand and remember the lesson in some topics. Teaching question tags using games to the children can become active learners.